Papal History

Secret Societies · Updated August 15, 2026

Overview

The pope ran a large Italian kingdom for over a thousand years until 1870, governing territory larger than several modern European nations combined. From the 8th century onward, the Papal States covered central Italy as sovereign land ruled directly by the pontiff. The popes functioned as temporal monarchs who collected taxes, fielded armies, and negotiated wars alongside their role as spiritual leaders of the Catholic Church. This dual identity traces back to Saint Peter, the apostle Catholic tradition recognizes as the first bishop of Rome, whom Jesus reportedly gave the Keys of Heaven. Every pope since claims to sit in Peter's chair, a succession that gave the bishop of Rome authority over kings and emperors.

That earthly kingdom collapsed in 1870 when Italian forces seized Rome and absorbed the Papal States into the newly unified nation of Italy. The pope retreated behind the walls of his palace, refusing to recognize the Italian government and declaring himself a prisoner. This standoff, known as the Roman Question, festered for nearly sixty years until Pope Pius XI and Benito Mussolini signed the Lateran Treaty on February 11, 1929. The agreement created Vatican City as an independent state of about 100 acres, giving the pope sovereign territory again. The treaty separated the Holy See from the physical city, establishing the Holy See as a sovereign entity under international law that maintains diplomatic relations with countries worldwide.

The Holy See operates as the legal and diplomatic voice of The Papacy, distinct from the 100-acre Vatican City enclave. The word "see" comes from the Latin word for seat or chair, referring to the throne used during the ceremony that installs a newly elected pope. The College of Cardinals elects each pontiff in a closed-door vote called a conclave. The current pope is Leo XIV, elected on May 8, 2025, on the second day of the 2025 papal conclave.

The pope was a sovereign ruler of a large Italian kingdom for over a thousand years until 1870, governing territory larger than several modern European nations combined.

Source: Wikimedia Commons · Public domain

Key facts

The Papal States existed from the 8th century until 1870 as sovereign territory ruled by the pope.: The popes governed lands across central Italy as temporal monarchs, not merely spiritual leaders, for over a millennium.
Vatican City State was created in 1929 by the Lateran Treaty between Fascist Italy and the Holy See.: The treaty resolved the 'Roman Question' that had existed since 1870, when Italy had seized the Papal States.
The Holy See is a sovereign entity under international law, distinct from Vatican City itself.: The Holy See maintains diplomatic relations with many independent states and participates in international organizations.
The word 'see' derives from the Latin 'sede,' meaning seat or chair, referring to the throne used during papal enthronement.: This refers specifically to the chair upon which the newly elected pope sits during the enthronement ceremony.
Papal primacy is theologically grounded in the claim that the bishop of Rome is the apostolic successor to Saint Peter.: Catholic doctrine holds that Jesus conferred primacy on Peter by giving him the Keys of Heaven and the powers of binding and loosing.
The current pope is Leo XIV, elected on 8 May 2025 on the second day of the 2025 papal conclave.: His election followed the conclave process in which the College of Cardinals votes to select a new pontiff.

Context

The papacy is one of the oldest continuously functioning institutions in the world, tracing its origins to Saint Peter in the first century. For most of its history, the pope was not only a spiritual leader but also a temporal ruler governing territory in Italy. The modern arrangement, in which the pope leads a tiny city-state within Rome, dates only to 1929.